Dictionary of philosophy pdf

B Bacon, Francis. His main philosophical work lay in philosophy of science, where he tried to replace what he saw as the a priorism of the Aristotelian tradition by a new and thoroughgoing empiricism. His political writings rely heavily on the scientific optimism which he thought this method justified.

Essays, , expanded later. New Atlantis, a scientific Utopia. See also MILL. Urbach and J. Gibson eds and trs , Novum Organum, Open Court, Bad faith. Laughter, Macmillan, , French original, Fingarette, Self-Deception, Self-deception in general. Hamlyn, H. Sartre, Being and Nothingness, , transl. See also his Essays on Existence ed. For writer example see pp. Bald man paradox of. See HEAP. Does a barber who shaves all and only those not shaving themselves shave himself?

Basic action. Action not involving further action as its cause, or which we do not perform by performing another action; e. Develops and criticizes the notion, giving references. Mainly on action in general, but see its index. Basic statements. Also sometimes called protocol statements sentences or by Carnap primitive protocol statements.

But the various conceptions of them have little else in common. Their subject-matter varies, with different writers, from immediate personal experience to the common world.

In a variant of the latter role they provide tools for testing universal hypotheses, and are therefore themselves mainly singular existential statements, saying that something exists or occurs at a certain place and date Popper; e. Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic, Gollancz, See 2nd edn , p. Ayer ed. Bayes — Briefly, where p and q are propositions, the probability of p, given q, is that of q, given p, multiplied by the prior probability of p and divided by the prior probability of q.

A Bayesian approach to probability allows hypotheses etc. Kyburg, Probability and Inductive Logic, Macmillan, What an object, particularly a living creature, does. There are problems and ambiguities: is intention, or at least controllability, needed for behaviour?

Are heart-beats behaviour? Abelard abailard , pierre 27 Must behaviour affect the outer world and be publicly observable? Is silent thinking behaviour? Must behaviour described in one way e. Can the utterances of a parrot be called verbal behaviour? Should an uncontrollable reflex action, like a knee-jerk, be called behaviour of the knee but not of the person? Brown ed. One view of behaviour, causation, and rationality. Logical or analytic behaviourism defines mentalistic terms using only behavioural or physiological terms.

Metaphysical or philosophical behaviourism refuses to see more than physical behaviour where claims for mentality are made. Methodological behaviourism insists on behavioural tests but is neutral on the philosophical implications. Block ed. Includes section on behaviourism. Ryle, The Concept of Mind, Hutchinson, Classic work, usually taken to support analytical behaviourism. Being seems at first to be a property of everything, or at least of everything there is, for how can anything have a property unless it is there to have it?

Do unicorns have, say, the property of being vegetarian? Or is it only that they would have it if there were any unicorns? It raised the question: what counts as being a property or logical predicate?

He said the same about unity and, for a different reason, about goodness. Out of this arose the medieval doctrine of transcendentals. Some other writers, e. They were intended to delineate the characteristics of being qua being, another notion originating in Aristotle, who made it the subject matter of metaphysics.

Interpretations of it differ. It may refer to everything that is, considered just as being, or to something which somehow accounts for the being of everything else. This may be substance in general or the highest kind of substance like God, or the movers of the cosmic spheres. On this latter view God and the movers account for the being of other substances, and substance accounts for that of qualities, relations, etc.

Despite the difficulties in supposing that there are things which do not exist, philosophers have often been reluctant to put into one basket all the things that in some sense have being. Existence is sometimes distinguished from subsistence and other notions. Existence and subsistence, etc.

One strand of idealism treats being rather as having different degrees. Abelard abailard , pierre 29 Carnap divided questions of existence into those internal and external to a given system, e. These various problems about fictional and timeless objects connect metaphysics with philosophical logic, and two further questions arise here.

First, how do we tell to what ontology i. What counts as holding that, e. The second question is what the laws of logic themselves commit us to. In particular can we prove by logic alone that there must be at least one object?

Various attempts to avoid this have been made. Does it signify existence in a substantial sense, and if not, then what does it signify? Some forms of existentialism contrast being or essence with existence. Being belongs to animals and inanimate things, and existence only to humans, who can create themselves and are not products of the environment. What makes these senses different is that different things can be inferred from statements made by sentences containing them.

But these differences are complex and controversial in detail, and so is the question what, if anything, links the senses together. Some think the attempt to distinguish definite senses is mistaken Kahn. Aristotle, Metaphysics, b22—7 being not a genus; cf. Barnes, The Ontological Argument, Macmillan, , chapter 3.

Also has bibliography, to which add S. Landesman ed. External and internal questions. Does logic prove the universe cannot be empty? Kenny ed. Essence and existence in Aquinas.

Foundations of Language, Attacks rigidity of distinction into senses. Verhaar ed. Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, , revised , B—9. Classic attack on existence as predicate. Linsky, Referring, RKP, Discusses theories of Meinong and later writers, playing down the metaphysical extravagance often attributed to Meinong.

Chisholm ed. Relevant passages include Republic, e ff. Linsky ed. Rather more technical criticism of Quine. Presentational being. Flew ed. Wiggins, Sameness and Substance, Blackwell, Abelard abailard , pierre 31 Belief. The proposition forms the content of the belief, and to believe is usually regarded as in some sense involving, and perhaps as standing in a certain relation to, the relevant proposition, so that belief is a propositional attitude cf.

Where p is a proposition, can we believe p and believe not-p to be distinguished from not believing p. And does this entail believing p and not-p? Also, can we believe what we know is false or regard as improbable , and can we be mistaken about whether we believe something?

When are beliefs justified? Suppose I believe a certain spy should be hanged, without realizing that the spy is my sister. Then I believe de re, but not de dicto, that my sister should be hanged—I believe it of her. But the distinction is controversial.

Further problems concern how belief relates to other notions, such as desires, actions, inner experiences and language. In fact, difficulties in isolating activities in the brain that could correspond to belief have even led some people to say there is no such thing as belief. Also how far is belief, assuming it does exist, voluntary, and can we have a duty to believe something the ethics of belief?

Relations between ethical and epistemological requirements. Woodfield ed. General problems about belief see especially pp. Griffiths ed. See article by Braithwaite for a dispositional account.

Can it ever be reasonable or right to believe against the evidence? Broad and D. For classic discussion see W. Bogdan ed. VI, Presents and discusses a puzzle raised by Kripke and also discusses belief and assent.

Salmon and S. Margalit ed. Mellor ed. Prospects for Pragmatism, Cambridge UP, Essays in honour of F. Ramsey —30 , many of which are relevant to belief. Mitchell ed. Bentham, Jeremy. Moral, political and legal philosopher, who was born in London and worked mainly there. A Fragment on Government, attacks the then fashionable legal theorist W. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, Bergson, Henri L. Worked mostly in his native Paris. He also made a famous study of laughter and the comic.

Le Rire, Les Deux Sources de la morale et de la religion, Berkeley, George. Born in Kilkenny, Ireland, he mainly stayed in Ireland, though with visits abroad, including one to America, and he became bishop of Cloyne. However, among percipients Berkeley included God. An Essay towards a New Theory of Vision, A Treatise concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, De Motu, on motion. Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher, largely theological, but with philosophical passages.

Luce and T. But the number concerned must be not nameable in fewer than nineteen syllables since the phrase does name it, yet nameable in fewer since the phrase itself has only eighteen. Teensma, The Paradoxes, Van Gorcum, , pp. Exposition with brief discussion. Three boxes hold respectively two gold coins, two silver, one of each.

A coin drawn randomly is gold. What is the probability that the other coin in the same box is gold? The box chosen must be double gold or mixed, so the probability is a half. Yet the coin must be the first or second in the gold box, or the gold in the mixed box; two of these three alternatives makes the other coin gold, so the probability is two-thirds. What is the probability that a random chord of a circle exceeds the side of an inscribed equilateral triangle?

It is longer if its midpoint lies on the inner half of the radius bisecting it, so, since the midpoint may lie anywhere on this radius, the probability is a half. It is also longer if its midpoint lies within a concentric circle with half the original radius, so, since the area of this inner circle is a quarter that of the original circle, the probability is a quarter.

Other answers exist, and the paradox has many variants. Abelard abailard , pierre 35 Best principle of. Full formal treatment. Bivalence principle, law of.

Boolean algebra. Algebra or, strictly, set of algebras, invented by G. Hughes and M. Bradley, Francis H. No other propositions can be more than partly true. He argued that relations were always internal to their terms an argument MOORE criticized —though he also thought that they were illusory. Logic, 2nd edn, revised especially on negation, ,. Appearance and Reality, Essays on Truth and Reality, Brain process theory. Brentano, Franz C.

He was a Catholic priest for a short period. Wahrheit und Evidenz The True and the Evident , Broad, Charlie D. Born in Harlesden London he worked mainly in Cambridge. Perception, Physics, and Reality, Scientific Thought, The Mind and Its Place in Nature, Five Types of Ethical Theory, The class of ordinals less than a given ordinal has that ordinal as its ordinal.

Therefore the ordinal of the class of all ordinals is greater than any ordinal in that class, and so is not an ordinal. Burali-Forti in Butler, Joseph. Natural theologian and moralist who was born at Wantage and became bishop of Bristol and then of Durham. His contribution to moral philosophy consists in his examination of moral psychology, including the roles of self-love and benevolence, and his treatment of conscience as a principle having overriding authority.

Fifteen Sermons, his moral philosophy. Abelard abailard , pierre 39 C Calculus. A general name, applied to a subject, for the body of principles governing reasoning in the subject.

Sometimes such systems are themselves called calculi. The propositional calculus also called the sentential calculus, calculus of unanalysed propositions, calculus of truth values, or calculus of truth functions concerns truth FUNCTIONS of propositions, but with the restriction that the propositions are regarded as either the same as each other or completely different.

When the restriction is lifted and the structure of propositions is taken into account, we have the functional or predicate calculus, or the calculus of relations. There is also an extended propositional calculus, where propositions are quantified over.

The calculus of classes concerns classes and their members. It is the elementary nucleus of set theory, which treats problems arising out of the calculus of classes and goes beyond it by treating, for example, classes whose members are ordered, and problems specific to infinite classes.

The hedonic calculus, or calculus of pleasures, is the set of principles which would govern any system claiming that pleasures can be measured, added, and in general systematically compared. But whether such a calculus could be constructed is controversial. Calculus of individuals. A dictionary of philosophy 40 D. Hilbert and W. Ackermann, Principles of Mathematical Logic, ; 2nd edn , trans.

Chelsea, NY, A standard account of the main logical calculi. Elementary introductions to symbolic logic, covering similar ground, are legion. Makinson, Topics in Modern Logic, Methuen, , chapter 5. Set theory and logic. Benacerraf and H. Cambridge change. Similarly if I stay the same while you grow bigger than me, we both undergo Cambridge changes, though only you would be said to undergo a real change.

Develops the notion further. Cancelling-out fallacy. The assumption that where two partially identical expressions mean the same, one can cancel out the identical parts and the remaining parts will mean the same as each other, e. See index. It is provable that any class has more subclasses than members. Suppose there were a class of all classes. Its subclasses, being classes, would be members of it. Abelard abailard , pierre 41 Carnap, Rudolf.

He migrated to America where he worked mainly in Chicago and Los Angeles. Meaning and Necessity, , enlarged Logical Foundations of Probability, The Continuum of Inductive Methods, Connected with Descartes, or his ideas.

A dictionary of philosophy 42 Categories. Ultimate or fundamental divisions or kinds. For much of its history the search for categories has wavered between seeking distinctions among things in the world and distinctions among our ways of thinking or talking about the world. Much of the difficulty in each case has lain in knowing what distinctions to count as sufficiently fundamental. It is mainly by being ultimate or fundamental that categories differ from mere classes.

This wavering appears in Aristotle, who first explicitly introduced categories. He sometimes lets categories overlap, so that the same item appears in more than one end of chapter 8 in his Categories. Aristotle also argues that there cannot be a single all-embracing genus like being or unit. Many writers have followed Aristotle in elaborating sets of categories, usually more systematic than his. Among modern writers the most important contribution is that of Kant, who had a system of four groups of three.

He intended these as a classification, whose correctness and exhaustiveness he claimed to prove, of the ways in which any mind recognizably like the human mind necessarily had to perceive and think about the appearances it was presented with. The categories were not a classification of things in themselves NOUMENA , for Kant thought we could never know these and so never apply categories to them.

The categories could only be applied to material given by experience, but they could not themselves be derived from experience, since all use of experience presupposes them. Many who accept this general idea reject the particular list he gave, and deny that there is some one list valid for all people and times. There is still much dispute about such related questions as whether there are certain features every language must share cf.

In this century two converging streams of thought have aroused interest in categories. It leads to corresponding divisions in language, e. Secondly, thinkers like Husserl and Ryle, among others, have tried to construct a doctrine of categories in order to systematize the ways in which a sentence can go wrong, and in particular the distinction between the false and the meaningless.

Roughly speaking, the ideal of this approach would be to divide things into non- overlapping groups so that what could be said truly or falsely, but not nonsensically, of the members of one group differed radically from what could be said of the members of another, rather as most of the things that can be said of a cat differ from what can be said of a wish, or of a day of the week.

Sentences which say about a subject in one category something that can only be sensibly said about a subject in another category, are called category mistakes or type confusions, e. Such a doctrine cannot tell us when a sentence makes sense if we must already know this before constructing the doctrine. But the doctrine could systematize the situation, and throw useful light on individual cases through comparisons.

Many difficulties arise concerning categories. It sometimes seems to be thought that, if they exist at all, they must belong to the world and not language, because they must be found out and not created by us.

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MAX M. OTTO O. PAUL O. JOSE A. PAUL A. Anglo Saxon C. Chinese Fr. French Ger. Greek Lat. Latin Heb. German Skr. In the volume are represented all the branches as well as schools of ancient, medieval, and modern philosophy. In any such conspectus, it is increasingly recognized that the Oriental philosophies must be accorded ample space beside those of the western world. This diversity of approach is responsible for the book's unique character, a reflection of the multiplicity of symbols and signs and the phenomenal range of possible interpretations they offer.

This book draws together folklore, literary and artistic sources, and focuses on the symbolic dimension of every colour, number, sound, gesture, expression or character trait that has benefitted from symbolic interpretation. The conscious and unconscious minds are explored, desire and dreams are treated alongside the known and the chronicled. Extraordinary in its range and eclecticism, this dictionary was originally published in French as the Dictionnaire des Symboles, and it is regarded as the standard work on the subject.

It includes descriptive terms, the major theoretical concepts of the most influential grammatical frameworks, and the chief terms from mathematical and computational linguistics. It contains over entries, providing definitions and examples, pronunciations, the earliest sources of terms and suggestions for further reading, and recommendations about competing and conflicting usages. The book focuses on non-theory-boumd descriptive terms, which are likely to remain current for some years.

Background of the Problem 1 1. Issues of the Study Undertaken 6 1. Review of Literature 7 1. Statement of the Problem 11 1. Objectives of the Study A chapter of a book is barely sufficient to provide comprehensive and comparative analysis of the place of the subject in the moral philosophy of two of the most important figures in modern … Expand. Generally, Plato is seen as a monist philosopher. But this fact is true only if we take in account his written works.

When studying Henri Bergson's works, one can understand that as he proceeds from theoretical philosophy to applied philosophy, he criticizes deterministic view in favor of freedom and establishes … Expand. Highly Influenced.